CHAPTER II
THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK
2.1 LISTENING
Listening come from a verb listen
which means to make an effort to hear somebody or something. According to
Howart and Dakin “listening is the ability to identify and understand what
other are saying”. This involves understanding a speaker’s scent or
pronounciation, his grammar and vocabulary and grasping his meaning”.[1]
Those definition above, clearly apply that listening ability is the
skill that required to listen well to somebody or something. Listening ability
is the ability or a power to relate the sound to meaning. When the student
listen to a passage mean that he uses his listening ability to communicate with
the passage by understanding the vocabulary spelling, grammar, and the meaning
of the passage.
Listening is one of four basic skill
in which English students should be trained. Since training this skill is often
neglected and the students have few
opportunities to listen to English spoken and non English speaking country, the
improvement of the students’ listening comprehension will depend largely on
effective teaching in the classroom.
Rost state that progress in listening will provide a basis for development of
other language skill.[2]
The statement implies that listening skill can support the students to master
the other language skills. Listening in language teaching-learning process
possesses important contribution to other major language skills and of course
it must be taught in language teaching.
According to Rost, there are three
stages of listening process, there are Pre-listening, Whilst listening and
post-listening.[3]
The brief explanation of those activities as follow:
2.1.1 Pre-listening
Pre-listening can be done in variety
ways and occur naturally when listening is part of an integrated skills course
and listening task is a link to a previous content-based activity. The
pre-listening include:
1.
The
teacher give the background information before the students listen to the text.
2.
The
students read something relevant to the topic.
3.
The
students look at the picture that prepare them for title topic.
4.
There
is a class discussion of the topic or situation in the upcoming-test.
5.
There
is a question-answer session with the class of a whole.
6.
The
teacher gives written exercise to preview tile content.
7.
The
students go over the tile procedures for the upcoming listening task.
2.1.2 Whilst listening
After students get some experiences
from the previous explanation and some vocabularies addition about the
material, the teacher can teach them through some ways as follow:
1)
The
teacher ask the students to listen to an oral text.
2)
The
teacher reads the listening twice.
3)
The
teacher asks the question about the text.
4)
The
students answers the question in their answer sheet.
2.1.3 Post-listening
In post-listening activities, the
teacher and students discuss the text by re-read the text. All of the
activities above will serve to improve the students’ knowledge and they will
need to listen as accurate as possible. This statement is in line with Rost’s
opinion that students will motivated to listen and will activate what they know
as they listen.[4]
2.2 Factor Affecting
Listening Ability
As the researcher said before that
very important to develop students’ listening ability since it can improve
their achievement in mastering English in general. Listening is highly
individual experience that is influenced by many factors. According to Bromley
there are three factor that affect listening.[5]
Those factors are in the following:
2.2.1 Listener factor
The listener factor include:
1)
Purpose
It is enotmously important that
before listening the students are motivated to listen. This will increase their
ability to do these thing after they have finished listening providing a
purpose for listen perhaps the single most important responsibility of the
classroom teacher and the one of the most neglected.
2). Conceptual
level
Children who possess a fund of
knowledge based on both first-hand and various learning language possess the
required concepts and meaning to associate with the spoken language. The
fluency with which children process language also affect listening.
3). Experience
Children who have not been expected
to listen and comprehend, and thus not has successful comprehension experiences
may have the harder time than children who had many meaningful comprehension
interaction. While this is not always the case, in the general, success foster
more of the same kind of success.
4).
Comprehension monitoring of strategies
Children who are affective listener
are actively engage in controlling meaning. They check or monitoring their
understanding of what is heard in many ways. They associate their information
with what already known, they ask the accuracy or meaning of what they hear,
they paraphrase or top the speaker and request the message be repeated or
explained when it is not meaningful.
2.2.2 Situational
Factor
The
situational factor include:
1). Environment
The environment in which listening
occurs must be free from distraction and arranged to heighten listening so that
the listener focuses and concentrates attention on the verbal message.
2). Visuals
The concrete visual stimuli provide
children in listening situation can increase comprehension. Visual aids can be
chalkboard, overhead projector, picture and etc. The students will easily learn
something by the visual aids.
2.2.3
Speaker Factor
The
speaker factor include:
1). Redundancy
The student’s difficulties in
mastering listening materials can be reduce by using gestures, body movements,
countors of the face, expression of mouth and eyes. Paraphrasing and repeating
a message also helps the students to understand and remember it.
2).
Pronounciation
According to Bromley that clear and
distinct pronounciation along with the use of appropriate pitch, stress and
juncture also affect listening comprehension. Correct and careful
pronounciation of words contributes to the receipt of accurate message.
3). Eye Contact
The listener is more apt to hear and
understand appropriate message delivered by a speaker who maintains direct eye
contact than one who looks at the ceiling, wall or the top of the listeners’
head.
2.3 DICTATION
2.3.1
Definition of Dictation
Oller
defined “dictation is a task which require the processing of temporally
constrained sequence of material in the language divided up the stream of
speech and then refer down what is heard requires understanding the meaning of
the material”.[6]
From the definition, we may conclude that dictation is a kind of test that not
only challenge students’ short term memory and understanding in spelling
vocabulary but also to understand the meaning of what is said. The students are
hoped to perceive the contents of the passage and recognized all the words and
sentences being read so that they are able to put these aural codes into
written symbols.
Dictation is used to evaluate most
of the aspect of language simultaneously.[7]
Its main purpose is to check the proficiency of the students about the language
being learned through listening ability. It means that when the students do dictation
test, they do not pay attention to the sound of the words read by the teacher
but also understand about the meaning and be able to transfer the dictated
passage to their graphical representations. They are forced to pay a
comprehensive attention to the passage dictated and write down what they
perceive by sound, sight and feeling in the second language at the same time
span allowed for a response in the first language. Once they fail to
concentrate on their listening, they will not able to make a quick guess what
they actually have to write. It is clear implies that dictation is used to
assess the students’ ability, in this case listening skill. Teacher hopes that
this method of evaluation can motivate students in learning English and check
whether the teaching aims have been satisfactorily fulfilled or not.
2.3.2 Type of Dictation
In determining the kinds of
dictation as a testing device, the teacher should have a look at the material
provided. To prepare which kind of dictation used, the teacher as the examiner
should realized the specific point to be
gained in using each test. As a testing technique, dictation may be given by
various ways. According to Oller there are five types of dictation procedure
that have been used in a variety of ways testing techniques. Those five ways
are elaborated as follows:
a)
Standard Dictation
Standard dictation is probably the
best known. Students are require to write verbal sequences of material of
spoken by a teacher or played back from a recording. The material should be
presented at a normal conversational speed and is given in sequences that are
long enough to challenge students’ short term memory.
b)
Partial Dictation
Partial dictation also called spot
dictation. This type has a close relation with the standard dictation, but the
students are given either a written version of the text or the spoken one. The
written version has certain portion which are deleted. The students must listen
to the spoken material and fill in the missing portion in the written version.
It is easier to perform because more sensory information is given concerning
the message; a partial written version and a complete spoken version.
c)
Dictation with competing noise
This type of dictation is rather
difficult because the material is presented with adding noise. This kind of
dictation drills the students to be used to everyday communication context
where language is used in less than ideal acoustic condition; for example, we
are trying to have conversation in someone’s living room when the television
and air conditioner are producing a high level
of competing noise or trying to hear a message over a public address
system in a busy air station, etc.
d)
Dicto – Comp
This type of dictation is actually a
combination of two forms, namely dictation and composition. Here, the teacher
read the whole passage three time and the students are only given chance to
write their work after the teacher has finished the tird reading. They should
recall the whole story and write the story as a reproduction of what they
heard.
e)
Elicited Imitation
In this case, the students listen to
the material, but instead of writing down the material, the students are asked
to repeat it or otherwise recount what was said. The condition of class,
whether noisy or not will determine the success or failure in administering the
process of dictation test. The teacher should strictly consider the readiness
of the students before facing the dictation test with the hope to get the test
successfully.
2.3.3
The Advantage of Dictation
Dictation has been used in language learning
for several hundred years. However, the use of dictation has always been
controversional. It has not always been looked on with favor by some expert.
For example, Lado says that dictation is favored by many teacher and students
both as teaching and testing device, but on critical inspection it appears to
measure very little of language.[8] In
line with lado’s opinion, Harris believe that as a testing device, dictation
must be regarded as generally uneconomical and imprecis.[9]
Contrary to those two belief above,
Davis and Rinvolucri found out that dictation can be very useful as a test by
which to ascertain the pupil’s progress in spelling, punctuation and
pronounciation.[10]
The further stated that dictation is an activity which is suitable for a wide
range of levels and ages.
The following are some advantage of
dictation according to Montalvan:[11]
a)
Dictation can help develop all four language
skills in an integrative way.
b)
As
students develop their aural comprehension of meaning also of the relationship
among segments of language, they are learning grammar.
c)
Dictation
help to develop short term–memory. Students practice retaining meaningful
phrases or whole sentences before writing them down.
d)
Practice in careful listening to dictation
will be useful later on in note taking exercise.
e)
Correcting
dictation can lead to oral communication.
f)
Dictation
can serve as an excellent review exercise.
g)
Dictation
is psychologically powerful and challenging.
h)
Dictation
fosters un conscious thinking in the new language.
i)
If
the students do well, dictation is motivating.
j)
Dictation
involve the whole class, no matter how large it is.
k)
During
and after the dictation, all students are active.
l)
Correction
can be done by students.
m)
Dictation
can be prepared for mixed ability groups.
n)
Dictation
can be prepared for any level.
o)
The
students, as well as the teacher, can get instant feedback (if the exercise is
corrected immidiately).
p)
The
dictation passage can (and should) be completely prepared in advanced (it also
can be taped).
q)
Dictation
can be administered quite affectively by an inexperienced teacher.
r)
Dictation
exercise can pull the class together, for example, during those valuable first
minute.
s)
Dictation
can provide access to interesting texts, by introducing a topic, for example,
or summarizing it, as in dicto-comp.
t)
Research
has shown the learning to write down what you hear can encourage the
development of literacy.
2.3.4 Materials and Procedure of Giving Dictation
Test
It is important
for the teachers to make some preparation when they are going to give a
dictation test to their students. Oller stated that, as an integrative test,
dictation has to meet the naturalness requirements:[12]
a)
The
sequences of words or phrases to be dictated are selected from normal prose, or
dialogue, or some other natural form of discourse (or perhaps the sequences are
carefully contrived to mirror normal discourse, as in well written function).
b)
The
material is presented orally in sequences that are long enough to challenge the
short-term memory of the learners.
Based on those naturalness
requirements, it is important for the teachers to make some preparation when
they are going to give dictation test to their students. There are some
requirements that must be followed, those are:
a.
Teachers
have to select suitable materials to be dictated.
b.
The
words dictated should have been taught to the students before.
c.
The
words dictated should be selected or chosen from simple words.
d.
Teachers
have to select suitable procedures which are appropriated in giving dictation
test. There are two ways of giving dictation test; first is the teacher reads
the words directly, and the second is the words dictated have been recorded
before.
From the
requirements above, it is clear that the materials of dictation are any single
words, compound words, word phrases, and sentences which are going to be
dictated. The teacher can choose the material from the book provided and used
as reference and the teacher may use a tape recorder as an aid in presenting the
test.
Besides preparing
the materials, teachers have to select suitable procedures which are
appropriated in giving dictation test. The procedures of the presentation can
be arranged in two ways; the teacher himself reads the material in front of the
class or uses a tape recorder as an aid in presenting the test. The teacher is
required to read the passage three times in all: first, at normal speed; then,
with pauses between phrases or natural word groups so that the students may
write down what they have just heard, and finally, at normal speed once more so
they can check their work.
2.4 ERROR ANALYSIS
2.4.1 Definition of Error Analysis
Errors in foreign language teaching
especially in English are the cases which are difficult enough to avoid. Error
analysis is the process of determinating the incidence, nature, causes, and
consequences of unsuccessful language.[13]
Error analysis is an activity to reveal errors found in writing and speaking.
Error analysis also is the study of errors made by the second and foreign
language learners. Error analysis may be carried out in order to (a) find out
how well someone knows a language, (b) find out how a person learns a language,
and (c) obtain information on common difficulties in language learning, as an
aid in teaching or in the preparation of teaching materials. This definition
stresses the functions of error analysis.[14]
Another concept of error analysis is
analysis as the process to observe, analyze, and classify the deviations of the
rules of the second language and then to reveal the systems operated by
learner.[15]
It seems this concept is the same as the one proposed by Crystal, Error
analysis is a technique for identifying, classifying and systematically
interpreting the unacceptable forms produced by someone learning a foreign
language, using any of the principles and procedures provided by linguistics.[16]
The three definitions above clarify that error analysis is an activity to
identify, classify and interpreted or describe the errors made by someone in
listening or in writing and it is carried out to obtain information on common
difficulties faced by someone in listening or in writing English sentences.
Another thing which should be noticed is the procedure of error analysis.
2.4.2 The Differences
Between Error and Mistake
Sometimes we confuse to
differentiate between error and mistake. If the learner is inclined and able to
correct a fault in his or her output, it is assumed that the form he or she
selected was not the one intended, and we shall say that the fault is a
mistake. If, on the other hand, the learner is unable or in any way disinclined
to make the correction, we assume that the form the learner used was the one
intended, and that it is an error.[17]
Mistakes can only be corrected by
their agent if their deviance is pointed out to him or her. If a simple
indication that there is some deviance is a sufficient prompt for self
correction, then we have a first-order mistake. If additional information is
needed, in the form of the exact location and some hint as to the nature of the
deviance, then we have a second-order mistake.
Errors cannot be self-corrected
until further relevant (to that error) input (implicit or explicit) has been
provided and converted into intake by the learner. In other words, errors require
further relevant learning to take place before they can be self-corrected.[18]
According to Brown “a mistake
concern with a performance error that is either a random guess or a slip, in
that it is a failure to utilize a known system correctly. While an error, a
noticeable deviation from the adult grammar of a native speaker reflects the
competence of the learner.”[19]
To be more
classified between error and mistake, James explained an error could not be
self-corrected, while a mistake can be self-corrected if the deviation is
pointed out to the speaker.[20]
2.4.3 The Causes of Error
Causes of error classified into
three types that is carelessness, first language interference, and translation.[21]
The three types of causes of error will be discussed briefly below:
1)
Carelessness.
It is often closely related to lack of motivation. Many teachers
will admit that it is not always the student’s fault if he loses interest,
perhaps the materials and/or style of presentation do not suit him.
2)
First
language. Learning a language (a mother tongue
or a foreign language) is a matter of habit formation. When someone tries to
learn new habits the old ones will interfere the new ones. This cause of error
is called first language interference”.
3)
Translation.
It is one of the causes of error. This happens because a student
translates his first language sentence or idiomatic expression in to the target
language word by word. This is probably the most common cause of error.
2.4.3 The Kinds of Error
Errors divided into four categories:
omission of some required element, addition of some necessary or incorrect
element, selection of an incorrect element, and miss-ordering of element.[22]
And here are the explanations:
a. Omission
Certain linguistic forms may be
omitted by the learners because of their complexity in production. Omission
also occurs in morphology. Learners often leave out the third person singular
morpheme –s, the plural marker –s and the past tense inflection –ed. A learner
could say, for example: “I watch the movie last night”. Instead of: “I watched
the movie last night”.
b. Addition
Learners not only omit elements
which they regard as redundant but they also add redundant element. For
example: - I swims - The books is here Instead of: “I swim” and “The book is
here”
c. Selection
Learners commit errors in
pronunciation, morphology, syntax and vocabulary due to the selection of the
wrong, phoneme, morpheme, structure or vocabulary item. For example: “Fika is
smartest than Femy”. Instead of “Fika is smarter than Femy”.
d. Ordering
Miss-ordering can occur in
morphological level. Miss-ordering of bound morpheme in English is perhaps less
frequent, given their limited number, but in the example “He is got upping
now”, the learners attaches the inflection –ing to the particle of the two
words verb “get up”.
Students’ errors may be distinguished as follows:
Ø Errors Performance is unsystematic and not very serious, because
the students themselves can correct them when their attention is drawn to them.
These errors are attributed to carelessness, lapse of memory, ill health,
emotional health, etc., and they should not worry us.
Ø Errors Competence is persistent and systematic and in consequence
serious, and their treatment calls for careful analysis to discover their
cause. These errors represent the learners’ traditional competence.
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